Introduction
Forced migration, driven by war, persecution, or natural disasters, disrupts the lives of millions of children globally. More than 1% of the world’s population, 1 in 95 people, are forcibly displaced and most displacement occurs in the Global South (Jesuit Refugee Service Ireland, 2021). In 2020, 86% of the world’s refugees were hosted in developing countries; with only 14% hosted in wealthier nations in the Global North. 42% of the world’s refugees are children and 1 million children were born as refugees in 2020 (ibid).
When there is a crisis, whether it be a natural disaster or conflict, education is often the first service to be suspended and the last to be restored” (Educo, 2023; 15) yet only a tiny proportion of global humanitarian funding (around 3%) is allocated to education[ii]. It is vital that countries develop robust strategies to ensure that their child refugee populations are able to quickly access educational institutions as it can provide a level of stability and security while “enabling [refugees] to learn about themselves and the world around them while striving to rebuild their lives and communities” (UNHCR, 2023)[iii].
This paper explores how forced migration impacts children’s education and learning outcomes, and suggests strategies to mitigate this.
Background
Migration has an impact on children’s emotional health, social integration, and academic achievement (Acosta Gomez, 2015). Between 2010 and 2022, the global number of forcibly displaced child refugees and asylum seekers more than doubled from around 20.6 million to the current number of 43.3 million (UNICEF, 2024). UNHCR (2023) estimate that over 1.9 million children were born as refugees from 2018 to 2022. Forced displacement and migration affects everyone however, children are often the worst affected for multiple reasons and forced migration has negative effects on children’s development (Bernhardt et al., 2024).
Bernhardt et al. (2024; 1) show how show early integration and access to educational facilities “can help to mitigate the wide-ranging negative consequences of forced displacement on young children’s development”. For example, they note that access to early education in a host society has a protective effect, and provides stability and security and a learning environment for displaced children to play (ibid). Comparative research by Crul et al. (2019; 1) also indicates that integrating children into regular formal education as soon as possible “seems to provide that best chances for school success whereas educating children in a segregated parallel school often results in early school leaving or not attending school at all”. However, by and large, access to education for refugees is often much worse than for non-refugees.
The situation in Ireland
All children in Ireland have access to preschool, primary and secondary education, and compulsory education is up to the age of 16, but, in practice, young people predominantly remain in education up to the end of the secondary school, commonly to the age 18/19. The 2016 Census figures showed that there were 96,497 non-Irish national students and pupils aged 5 years and over in Ireland in 2016 (see here).
According to the most recent Census (2022), the number of non-Irish citizens increased in 2022, accounting for 12% of the population (CSO, 2023). The statistical basis for gauging the educational experiences of foreign students and comparing them to native students is less well-developed and robust in Ireland because immigration patterns in Ireland shifted recently and suddenly. It is also important to note that it is only after Ireland became an attractive migration destination, is when the policy for integration of international migrants began to take shape.
Figure 1: Components of population change (average annual figures) for each intercensal period, 1981 to 2022 (CSO, 2023).
According to global figures compiled by UNHCR, refugee educational enrolment has remained at very low levels worldwide due to low secondary enrolment rates, and low rates at higher educational levels, with only 3% of young refugees enrolled in technical or vocational courses or universities in 2018[iv]. In Ireland, children are entitled to free primary and post-primary education but there are many factors that impact access to higher education. Cost is a primary factor, as many students will be discouraged or excluded from post-secondary education due to its costs. Additionally, as advanced language proficiency is required for advanced courses, language barriers will also be a key issue. Finally, barriers to information remain an issue as not all refugees and asylum seekers will be aware of the supports that they can access.
Refugee students in Ireland have access to various supports and fee reductions depending on their status[v]. Students with refugee status or permission to remain (eligible Stamp 4 permissions) can benefit from the Free Fees Initiative (FFI), provided that they meet residency requirements, which then significantly reduces their tuition costs. Refugee students pay typically between €2,500 and €5,500 per year in tuition fees at the EU rate, which are covered by the Higher Education Authority (HEA) under the FFI. Refugee students pay €2,000 to €2,500 per year in Student Contribution which is often covered by state grants such as the SUSI grant or the International Protection Student Scheme. Finally, the cost of the annual Student Levy/Capitation is €138 to €254 and this must be paid for by the student as it is not covered by the FFI or state grants.
Ireland’s system of accommodating those seeking international protection while in the asylum process – Direct Provision – is managed by the International Protection Accommodation Service (IPAS) which is an administrative division of the Department of Justice[vi]. The children seeking asylum in Ireland, who are accompanied by a parent, or a guardian are kept at Direct Provision centres until their applications are being processed. Children who arrive in the country, without any parent or guardian, seeking asylum are known as ‘separated child, seeking asylum’, previously called ‘unaccompanied minors (CIB, 2020). These children are placed in foster care till they turn 18 years old, and then they are shifted to Direct Provision Centres[vii].
The Joint Committee on Education and Skills (2019; 20) has stated that Ireland’s education system is currently “unfair and unequal” for asylum seekers. As noted by Dunbar et al. (2020; 31) “full engagement to education is impeded by Direct Provision” as while Ireland provides a free primary and secondary education system, “the supplemented material and social costs can far exceed the supports provided”. Furthermore, a 2020 report by the Ombudsman for Children’s Office examined children’s experiences of living in Direct Provision found that many of the children in the study felt discriminated against in the school (see OCO, 2020).
There are a number of efforts aimed at integrating refugees into Ireland[viii]. For example, the Minister for Education (2024) noted that “incredible work has been done to seamlessly integrate more than 18,000 children studying in primary and post-primary schools. That did not happen by magic; that happened because staff wanted it to happen”. Another example is the Community Sponsorship Ireland (CSI) that was established in 2018 under the Irish Refugee Protection Programme (IRPP). This scheme is a complementary integration and resettlement stream that empowers a community group to engage locally, assuming responsibility for providing a range of integration supports to an invited refugee family, in addition to a warm welcome into their new home and community[ix]. However, more could be done.
Strategies to assist the integration of refugee children and young people
Immerse[x], a Horizon 2020 funded project aimed at mapping the social integration of refugee and migrant children in Europe, identified 60 good practices aimed at integrating refugee and migrant children at various social system levels (micro, meso, and macro). Using data from Immerse’s online database, in addition to key findings from the wider literature, I have compiled a list of key factors that can assist with the integration of refugee children and young people in Ireland:
- Language acquisition is fundamental for the integration of migrant children. Among the 60 key projects that Immerse identified, 25 offer language classes focusing on both the mother tongue and the host country’s language. Ireland’s Migrant Integration Strategy identifies having sufficient language skills as key to facilitating participation in society (Government of Ireland, 2019). And, as Ni Raghallaigh et al. (2019) show, language skills are vital for refugee children in Ireland who often translate for their parents in day-to-day life, for example while out shopping. However, the 2008 financial crisis led to a reduction in English language supports in Ireland (OCO, 2020) and many schools in Ireland do not have a dedicated English as an Additional Language (EAL) teacher (Ní Raghallaigh et al. 2019).
- Access to extracurricular activities is important for the integration of children and this includes activities such ashomework supports, sports, music, art, and dance classes. Research has shown that participation in local sports activities/clubs in particular can be helpful in forming a sense of community belonging, provides a sense of continuity with their former lives (see e.g. Doidge et al., 2020; OCO, 2020). While there are positive stories about integrating newcomers into sports teams and clubs in Ireland (see e.g. Department of Justice, 2021), improvement in terms of access and reduced costs is needed in some areas in Ireland as the Irish Refugee Council (2023) found that costs remained a key barrier that prevented children living in Direct Provision in participating in extracurricular activities (Irish Refugee Council, 2023).
- Community support and befriending schemes are important for social integration. The 2015 Working Group to Report to Government on Improvements to the Protection Process, including Direct Provision and Supports to Asylum Seekers (the McMahon report) noted that parents of children in Direct Provision cite difficulties in their children forming friendships and barriers to integration into the local community as issues. The importance of friendships in helping refugee children to resettle in the host community is a key area where more research could be done as existing data suggests that good, quality friendships can be a strong, positive factor in shaping the children’s experiences. According to research by Kinlen (2008) there are key benefits to introducing befriending programmes at an early stage of resettlement as a way of fostering integration. Peer support can be beneficial to increase the confidence and social networking skills of refugee children. In some counties, resettlement support workers have put in place formal befriending or volunteer schemes to help support integration of refugee families. However, some resettlement support workers commented that they lacked the resources to put such programmes in place and there were mixed views in relation to their effectiveness.
- Access to mentoring and tutoring programs to provide personalised support to refugee children has been identified as important to integration, as is access to comprehensive support services, such as legal and school counselling, psychological support, and family interventions.
- Schools can play key roles in the integration process by implementing innovative educational and management models. These models may involve new teaching methods, inclusive curricula, and school policies that promote diversity and inclusion. Professional courses for teachers and school staff are also important.
Moving Forward
In addition to some of the key aspects identified above, namely language acquisition, community support and access to extracurricular activities, this section highlights some final recommendations that can improve young refugees’ learning experiences, and level of social integration in Ireland.
- Ireland could learn from best practices from other countries where some different models of learning have worked, like story-based learning and curriculums. Storytelling, in particular, can be used in many creative ways, especially with the children who have not had the previous opportunity to access formal education/ schooling, and whose concentration levels may be impacted due to stressors experienced during migration.
- In some cases, classroom levels could be assessed according to a child’s stage of learning development and not according to their age because when we classify refugee children based on their age/ classroom ratio, it may disadvantage them.
- Most of the efforts towards the integration of migrants are targeted at migrants in general but not to meet the specific needs of refugee children populations. In particular, there is a need for educational professionals to receive formal training for trauma awareness. Furthermore, future studies should also be conducted from a culture-specific lens to better identify where extra levels of care needs to be given.
- In Ireland, the role of NGOs in providing education or educational support is very limited and its potential must be realised. As international corporations, like KPMG, are working on volunteering initiatives through their Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) schemes, there could be scope for NGOs to receive funding/manpower from key corporations to help run some educational supports for refugee children in Ireland.
- It is equally important that, apart from educating them in schools, young refugees are taught soft skills and technical skills so that they are better equipped to apply/ find jobs after their studies are completed, and so that they can better transition into their professional lives.
- There is a need to increase scholarships at university level for refugees in Ireland as this will be beneficial to increase enrolment and reduce dropouts.
- Young refugees’ voices are often overlooked and should be included in future research and in project design. For example, if new integration projects are being designed at the community level, it is important to try include young refugees at each stage of the project. This was highlighted by the Immerse project.
- It is often difficult to track refugee education spending globally because this funding comes from multiple sources and inadequate finance is often a key obstacle preventing refugee children from receiving an education. It is therefore important that models are developed to better track refugee education spending in Ireland.
- Finally, there is a need for more data collection overall. There are severe limitations to consistently gather and generate accurate data on the educational outcomes of refugees. This is especially true for learning outcomes, since most of the data on refugees that is currently available focuses on access to education alone. Furthermore, there is a lack of data on non-academic learning outcomes, despite a wealth of evidence showing socio-emotional learning to be particularly important for many aspects of child development, including learning and overall well-being.
References
Acosta Gomez, L. C. 2015. Migration and its impact on children’s lives: A literature review. University of Iceland, School of Social Sciences. June 2015. https://skemman.is/bitstream/1946/21378/1/loka%20loka.pdf
Central Statistics Office (CSO). 2023. Census of Population 2022. Summary Results. https://www.cso.ie/en/releasesandpublications/ep/p-cpsr/censusofpopulation2022-summaryresults/
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Crul, M., Lelie, F., Biner, Ö. et al. 2019. How the different policies and school systems affect the inclusion of Syrian refugee children in Sweden, Germany, Greece, Lebanon and Turkey. CMS 7, 10 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1186/s40878-018-0110-6
Doidge, M., Keech, M., & Sandri, E. (2020). ‘Active integration’: sport clubs taking an active role in the integration of refugees. International Journal of Sport Policy and Politics, 12(2), 305–319.
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https://www.irishtimes.com/ireland/social-affairs/2022/12/30/a-beautiful-experience-wicklow-locals-welcome-refugee-families/
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[i] Tammana Joon is an intern with the PublicPolicy.ie team at the UCD Geary Institute for Public Policy.
[ii] European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations. No Date. Education in emergencies. https://civil-protection-humanitarian-aid.ec.europa.eu/what/humanitarian-aid/education-emergencies_en
[iii] See UNHCR. No date. Education. https://www.unhcr.org/what-we-do/build-better-futures/education
[iv] See https://www.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/legacy-pdf/5df9f1767.pdf
[v] See https://www.irishrefugeecouncil.ie/understanding-fees
[vi] https://www.irishrefugeecouncil.ie/listing/category/direct-provision It is important to note that this is a controversial system and there has been international criticisms regarding its misuse.
[vii] Tusla is the State agency responsible/ provides child protection, early intervention and family support services in Ireland. This includes responsibility for the care of unaccompanied minors who are in Ireland claiming asylum.
[viii] A list of community integration initiatives across Ireland can be found here https://assets.gov.ie/271458/0b3e2e9d-3d6f-4168-895b-ff452d8ecc1a.pdf
[ix] To see testimonial of a host sponsorship family see Gittens (2022).
[x] Integration Mapping of Refugee and Migrant Children (IMMERSE). Immerse – Mapping the integration of refugee and migrant children in Europe (immerse-h2020.eu)
This paper is available to download here.