Why Gender in Children’s School Lives matters
The Children’s School Lives Study (CSL; 2018–2023) is Ireland’s first mixed methods longitudinal cohort study of primary education. Funded by the National Council of Curriculum and Assessment (NCCA), it tracked 4,000 children over five years in 189 primary schools across two cohorts: cohort A tracked children from Junior Infants to Second class, while cohort B tracked children from Second class to 6th class. In addition, in-depth qualitative research with children from 12 of these schools was conducted annually. Research was also conducted with these case study children’s teachers, school principals, parents and grandparents. Over the five years of the study, data was generated on all aspects of children’s primary school experience, including school and classroom cultures, equality and wellbeing. Combined, the study provides the most comprehensive evidence base in the Irish context of the factors that shape children’s learning at a crucial stage in their development.
In this policy paper, we highlight how patterns and norms within society in relation to gender and sexualities influence children’s experience of primary school. Role modelling, changing gender roles, and family dynamics all shape how children navigate gender within primary school. Their understanding of gender is reflected in their interactions with teachers and peers in the classroom and school yard, in the messages they pick up from the curriculum and in how they are taught, in the kinds of activities they engage in after school, and in the expectations their teachers and parents have for them. Patterns related to social class, detailed in Report 8a, intersect with gender in terms of expectations, access to resources and opportunities for learning for both boys and girls in primary school. Differences both within and between girls and boys in levels of confidence, self-esteem, and aspirations all impact on how children engage with their learning in primary school and the possibilities they see for themselves in their present lives as children as well as in their futures as women and men. The gender profile of the school as single-sex or co-educational can also influence the learning climate as well as opportunities for personal and social development for both boys and girls in different school communities. Differences in school culture, disciplinary processes and the regulation of children’s learning all convey subtle messages to children about their gendered identities and what it means to be a boy or a girl. Sexualities and the expression of diverse gendered identities are increasingly to the fore in research with children in schools, as is the impact of school cultures and practices in recognising and supporting all forms of diversity in children’s school lives.
Key Findings:
This policy paper draws on findings from the Children’s School Lives Study (CSL) in relation to the impact of gender on children’s primary school experiences. Key findings include:
- Most children in CSL attend a co-educational primary school (88%) with 6% attending all-girls, and 6% attending all-boys primary schools.
- Interviews highlight gender stereotypes in children’s views of a ‘good’ girl (gentle, polite, obedient) and a ‘good’ boy (intelligent, good at maths and sports).
- Girls express more gender equal views than boys, with the most gender equal views expressed by girls in all girls’ schools, and least among boys in all boys’ schools.
- Girls consistently express more positive views of primary school than boys and girls are more likely than boys to aspire to go to college/university.
- However girls have a significantly lower academic self-confidence than boys, and this gender difference increases progressively from 2nd to 6th class.
- Most children agree their teacher thinks they are smart, but this is especially the case for girls in all-girls’ schools in cohort A, suggesting a strong culture of expectation in these schools.
- Girls are more likely than boys to be interested in literacy. However, differences in literacy attainment between boys and girls in 2nd class are no longer evident by 6th class.
- Boys are more likely than girls to be interested in maths and this difference becomes more pronounced as the children progress through primary school. However, from 2nd class to 6th class there is no significant difference in the attainment of boys and girls in maths.
- Girls are significantly more likely than boys to experience worry and anxiety, including about tests in school.
- Gender influences children’s social interactions in school. Girls are more likely to agree that others care about their feelings, while boys report a stronger sense of belonging in school, finding it easier to make friends.
- Being in single-sex or co-educational school influences children’s friendships, with children in co-educational schools reporting having more friends.
- Girls in all-girls’ schools have fewer, but closer, friendships. Popularity and social status are important in friendships of boys, especially in all-boys’ schools.
- Case studies highlight mixed friendships in co-educational schools with evidence of some girls joining boys’ games. There was no evidence of boys joining ‘girls’ games.
Findings
CSL School Distribution by Cohort and Gender
Across both cohorts, the majority of children are enrolled in co-educational schools, with single-sex school attendance being less common.
FIGURE 1: Number of Co-educational and Single-Sex schools (Cohorts A & B)
Figure 2 shows the distribution of girls and boys across CSL schools, with 6% in all-boys’ schools and 6% in all girls’ schools.
FIGURE 2: Aggregate percentage of children sample by school type
Children’s Gendered Ideas
The influence of gender in children’s school experiences must be understood within the broader societal context. From an early age, participating children clearly distinguish between the expected attributes and behaviours of boys and girls in their discussions:
Interviewer: What do you think makes a good girl?
Girl: Like being kind, being generous, being thoughtful for other people. (Girl, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, All-girls, Urban)
Interviewer: What do you think is a good boy?
Boy: Well, first of all, probably like saying nice things and listening and being smart, obviously the football, being good at football. (Boy, 2nd , Non-DEIS, All-boys, Urban)
When asked about gender equality, clearer differences emerge between boys and girls in their views on gender equality. Girls are significantly more likely than boys to agree that “boys and girls can do equally well at the same things,” both in 2nd class (Cohort A) and 6th class (Cohort B). Agreement is highest among girls in all-girls’ schools and lowest among boys in all-boys’ schools.
FIGURE 3: “Boys and girls can do as well as each other at the same things” (Agree/Strongly Agree) (Cohorts A & B, 2023)
Attitudes Toward School
Across both cohorts, girls consistently report more positive attitudes toward primary school than boys. While school enjoyment declines over time for all children, girls remain more likely to look forward to attending school, regardless of whether they attend a single-sex or co-educational school:
FIGURE 4: “I look forward to going to school” (Usually/Always) (Cohort A)
FIGURE 5: “I look forward to going to school” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
Interviewer: Why do you feel good coming to school?
Girl: Because I get to play with all my friends…. I feel excited because there’s new things you can do in school, like you can learn more things. (Girl, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, Co-Ed, Rural)
Interviewer: Why do you feel happy coming to school [Boy]?
Boy: Because I get to see my friends.
Interviewer: Anything else?
Boy: It’s sometimes fun learning.
Interviewer: What’s the best fun thing that you are learning?
Boy: Learning how to play football outside. (Boy, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, All-boys, Urban)
Girl 1: There’s six of us [in a friendship group], two best friends, two best friends, and then me and [Girl] are best friends.
Girl 2: So, it’s never really a fight, because no matter what we say, [Girl]’s like is always my best friend. They know that. I know [Girls] are best friends, and [Girl] and [Girl] are best friends. (Girls, 6th class, Non-DEIS, Co-Ed, urban)
Girls’ more positive view of school is also evident in their greater tendency to view school rules as being fair. However, this perception declines as the participating girls get older.
FIGURE 6: “The rules of the school are fair” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
Teacher Expectations and School Gender Profile
A strong culture of expectation is evident in most primary schools, with a majority of children agreeing their teacher considers them smart. This is especially the case in all girls’ schools in cohort A.
FIGURE 7: “My teacher thinks I am smart.” (Usually/Always) (Cohort A, 2023)
Aspirations to go to College/University
To examine the influence of societal gender norms and values on children’s long-term educational aspirations, we asked 6th class children whether they planned to attend college or university following post-primary school. Figure 8 shows that girls are significantly more likely than boys to say they plan to attend college/university after post primary school:
FIGURE 8: “Do you plan to attend college/university after post primary school?” (Cohort B, 2023)
Academic Self-Confidence
When asked to evaluate their academic performance relative to their peers, boys in both cohort A and B consistently rate themselves as performing better than most, while girls are less likely to do so:
FIGURE 9: “I am better than most people at my schoolwork’ and “I learn things quickly in class” (Usually/Always) (Cohort A)
FIGURE 10: “I am better than most people at my schoolwork” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
FIGURE 11: “I learn things quickly in class.” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
Case study interviews add further nuance to these findings. While some boys and girls speak confidently about their ‘smartness’ in school, others are highly aware of the challenges they face:
Girl: I am only really good at reading. But I can read little books, so I think I am good at reading … I think I get a load of ticks in maths (Girl, 1st class, DEIS, All-girls, Urban)
Girl: I don’t get a good score, like not horrible score, but not a good score … like 16 out of 20 or something like that, and then like I already feel kind of sad, like ‘Oh no … I’m not that smart compared to my sister and my mum and my dad. (Girl, 6th class, Non-DEIS, All-girls, Rural Town)
Interviewer: Why do you think you’re not smart?
Boy: Well, I am but like…
Interviewer: You are smart, ok?
Boy: But you know I’m not like the smartest in the world.
Interviewer: Okay. And what does being smart mean?
Boy: Well, you usually get everything right and you’re good at your work. (Boy, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, All-boys, Urban)
Interviewer: Do you think you’re smart?
Boy: Yeah, I’d say I’m pretty smart. If I’m good in fifth class, I’ll definitely do good in sixth class. (Boy, 5th class, DEIS, Co-Ed, Urban)
Interest in Literacy
Across both cohorts, girls consistently demonstrate a stronger interest in literacy than boys.
FIGURE 12: “I am interested in reading/writing” (Usually/Always) (Cohort A)
FIGURE 13: “I am interested in reading/writing” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
A significant difference in the literacy attainment of boys and girls is evident in 2nd and 4th class but there is no significant difference in the literacy attainment of boys and girls by 6th class.
FIGURE 14: Average reading attainment standard score (Drumcondra Reading and Micra-T) by gender, (Cohort B)
Interest in Maths
In Cohort B, boys consistently show a greater interest in mathematics than girls from 2nd class to 6th class.
FIGURE 15: “I am interested in Maths” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
While boys tend to do slightly better than girls in attainment in mathematics, the difference is not significant.
FIGURE 16: Average mathematics attainment standard score (Drumcondra Maths and Sigma-T) by gender (Cohort B)
Worry and Anxiety
Girls are more likely than boys to report being worried or anxious about things, and this difference increases as children progress to 5th and 6th class. Attending a single-sex or co-educational school does not influence levels of worry and anxiety.
FIGURE 17: Worry/Anxiety (Usually/Always) (Cohort A, 2023)
FIGURE 18: “I worry about things” (Usually/Always) (Cohort B)
Gender differences are also evident in children’s attitudes toward testing. Girls are significantly more likely than boys to say they are worried they will fail:
FIGURE 19: “Before I take a test, I am worried I will fail” (Often/Always) (Cohort B)
School Belonging
Gender influences children’s social interactions in school. Girls were more likely than boys to agree that others care about their feelings. Boys are more likely than girls to report a stronger sense of belonging in school, finding it easier to make friends, feel more included, and being less likely to be left out:
FIGURE 20: School belonging (Agree/Strongly Agree) (Cohort B, 2023)
The impact of school gender profile on children’s social networks
Our analysis of children’s social networks shows the impact of the gender profile of the school on children’s friendship patterns. Girls in all-girls’ schools have significantly fewer friends than those in other school types, suggesting smaller, more close-knit social circles. In contrast, boys and girls in co-educational schools have broader friendship groups than their peers in single-sex schools:
FIGURE 21: Number of friends, popularity and connectivity by school type
Children’s social interactions are shaped by gender norms and stereotypes, although girls generally show more flexibility in such behaviours. Case studies highlight mixed friendships in co-educational schools with evidence of some girls joining boys’ games. There was no evidence of boys joining ‘girls’ games.
Girl: Yeah, that would be okay, with boys dancing and girls playing football, because it’s normal for girls to play football and boys playing football. (Girl, 1st class, DEIS, Co-Ed, Urban)
Girl: Yeah. There’s one more thing that I like about school, it’s that girls and boys play together. In some schools, even if it’s girls and boys, always there’s teams like girls against boys or boys against girls, and I don’t really like it because I don’t think that they should be. (Girl, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, Co-Ed, Urban)
Interviewer: And do the boys ever play with the girls?
Boy: Sometimes.
Girl: Because when we were playing that thing where you jump over, I was trained in with the boys.
Boy: It’s mostly the girls that play with the boys … like the girls join in the boys’ games, but the boys don’t really join in the girls. (Children, 2nd class, Non-DEIS, Co-Ed, Urban)
Interviewer: Do you feel is it very different … like do boys and girls get treated differently here in the school?
Girl 1: I wouldn’t say so.
Girl 2: No.
Girl 1: … some of the boys in the class would say ‘Can we swap out some of the girls for the boys.’ (Girls, 6th class, DEIS, Co-Ed, Urban)
Conclusion
The Children School Lives Study highlights the importance of gender to children’s experiences of primary school. It influences their aspirations, attainment, well-being, friendships and attitudes toward gender equality. Girls are generally more positive and ambitious about their learning than boys, yet they consistently display less confidence in spite of their academic attainment. With respect to mathematics learning, this is especially evident as the children move toward the senior end of primary school. Social background (see Devine et al., 2024: Report 8a) intersects with gender especially in relation to attainment, with findings confirming the lower attainment in literacy of both boys and girls from poorer families by the end of primary school.
The study also highlights the impact of the gender profile of the school (all-boys’, all-girls’ or co-educational) on children’s experiences. This is evident in the climate for learning and disciplinary cultures, especially in single-sex schools. Our findings confirm that higher expectations for ‘good’ behaviour are placed on girls, especially in all-girls’ schools in the earlier years of primary school. Friendship patterns also differ depending on the gender profile of the school. In general, girls form stronger, more intimate friendships, especially in all-girls’ schools, while boys in all-boys’ schools were least likely to do so. Co-educational schools foster broader friendship groups. However cross-gender friendships typically involve girls joining boys’ activities (rather than vice-versa), suggesting stricter gender norms for boys. Measures of prejudice and bias with respect to gender indicate that boys in all-boys’ schools are least likely to subscribe to ideas of gender equality.
For policymakers, the research highlights the importance of ongoing professional development for teachers to support children in navigating gender identities and sexualities as they progress to the senior end of primary school. The findings also suggest that educators need to be continually attentive to gender effects in children’s school lives, mindful of peer dynamics and visibility in the classroom, as children navigate their friendships, their academic and social esteem in their primary school lives.
Devine, D; Ioannidou, O; Sloan, S; Martinez-Sainz, G; Symonds, J; Bohnert, M; Greaves, M; Moore, B; Smith, K; Crean, M; Davies, A; Jones, M; Barrow, N; Crummy, A; Gleasure, S; Samonova, E; Smith, A; Stynes, H; Donegan, A (2024) Equalities in Children’s School Lives – the impact of Gender, Report 8b https://cslstudy.ie/downloads/CSL_8b_Gender.pdf
References
Crean, M; Devine, D; Moore, B; Martinez-Sainz, G; Symonds, J; Sloan, S, Farrell, E. (2023) Social class, COVID-19 and Care: Schools on the front line in Ireland during the COVID-19 pandemic. British Journal of Sociology of Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425692.2023.2174077
Devine, D; Ioannidou, O; Sloan, S; Martinez-Sainz, G; Symonds, J; Bohnert, M; Greaves, M; Moore, B; Smith, K; Crean, M; Davies, A; Jones, M; Barrow, N; Crummy, A; Gleasure, S; Samonova, E; Smith, A; Stynes, H; Donegan, A (2024) Report 8a: Equalities in Children’s School Lives: the Impact of Social Background, UCD School of Education, UCD, Dublin.
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Martinez Sainz, G., Devine, D., Sloan, S., Symmonds, J., Moore, B., Barrow, N., Crean, M., Donegan, A., Greaves, M., Samonova, E., Gleasure, S. & Ioannidou, O. (2024). A rights-based exploration of children’s pedagogic voice in the classroom. Education 3-13, 0(0), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2024.2331953
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